Advanced Organic Synthesis: Methods and Techniques – Richard S. Monson

Advanced Organic Synthesis: Methods and Techniques
Richard S. Monson

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I. FUNCTIONAL GROUP MODIFICATIONS

1. Chemical Oxidations
I. Chromium Trioxide Oxidation
II. Periodate-Permanganate Cleavage of Olefins
III. Free Radical Oxidation of an Allylic Position
IV. Epoxidation of Olefins
V. Baeyer-Villiger Oxidation of Ketones
VI. Lead Tetraacetate Oxidation of Cycloalkanols
VII. Photolytic Conversion of Cyclohexane to Cyclohexanone Oxime
VIII. Oxidation of Ethers to Esters
IX. Partial Oxidation of an Aliphatic Side Chain
X. Bisdecarboxylation with Lead Tetraacetate
XI. Oxidation with Selenium Dioxide

2. Hydride and Related Reductions
I. Reduction by Lithium Aluminum Hydride
II. Mixed Hydride Reduction
III. Reduction with Iridium-Containing Catalysts
IV. Reduction of Conjugated Alkenes with Chromium (H) Sulfate

3. Dissolving Metal Reductions
I. Reduction by Lithium-Amine
II. Reduction by Lithium-Ethylenediamine
III. Reduction of a,/MJnsaturated Ketones by Lithium-Ammonia
IV. Reduction of a,/9-Unsaturated Ketones in Hexamethylphosphoric Triamide
V. Reduction of an a,/?-Unsaturated y-Diketone with Zinc

4. Hydroboration
I. Hydroboration of Olefins as a Route to Alcohols
II. Selective Hydroborations Using Bis(3-methyl-2-butyl)borane (BMB)
III. Purification of a Mixture of J9-10- and J1(9)-Octalins

5. Catalytic Hydrogenation
I. Hydrogenation over Platinum Catalyst
II. Low-Pressure Hydrogenation of Phenols over Rhodium Catalysts
III. c/j-4-Hydroxycyclohexanecarboxylic Acid from /?-Hydroxybenzoic Acid
IV. 3-Isoquinuclidone from/7-Aminobenzoic Acid
V. Homogeneous Catalytic Hydrogenation

6. The Introduction of Halogen
I. Halides from Alcohols by Triphenylphosphine—Carbon Tetrahalide
II. Halides from Alcohols and Phenols by Triphenylphosphine Dihalide
III. Allylic and Benzylic Bromination with W-Bromosuccinimide
IV. a-Bromination of Ketones and Dehydrobromination
V. Stereospecific Synthesis of /ra/w-4-Halocyclohexanols

7. Miscellaneous Elimination, Substitution, and Addition Reactions
I. Methylenecyclohexane by Pyrolysis of an Amine Oxide
II. The Wolff-Kishner Reduction
III. Dehydration of 2-Decalol
IV. Boron Trifluoride Catalyzed Hydrolysis of Nitriles
V. Bridged Sulfides by Addition of Sulfur Dichloride to Dienes
VI. Methylation by Diazomethane
VII. Oxymercuration: A Convenient Route to Markovnikov Hydration of Olefins
VIII. Esterification of Tertiary Alcohols
IX. Ketalization
X. Half-EsterificationofaDiol
XI. Substitution on Ferrocene
XII. Demethylation of Aryl Methyl Ethers by Boron Tribromide

II. SKELETAL MODIFICATIONS
8. The Diels-Alder Reaction
I. 3,6-Diphenyl-4,5-cyclohexenedicarboxylic Anhydride
II. Reactions with Butadiene
III. Catalysis by Aluminum Chloride
IV. Generation of Dienes from Diones
V. Reactions with Cyclopentadiene

9. Enamines as Intermediates
I. Preparation of the Morpholine Enamine of Cyclohexanone
II. Acylation of Enamines
III. Enamines as Michael Addition Reagents
IV. Reactions of Enamines with j3-Propiolactone
V. Reactions of Enamines with Acrolein

10. Enolate Ions as Intermediates
I. Ketones as Enolates: Car bethoxylation of Cyclic Ketones
II. Esters as Enolates: 1,4-Cyclohexanedione and Meerwein’s Ester
III. Methylsulfinyl Carbanion as a Route to Methyl Ketones
IV. Cyclization with Diethyl Malonate
V. Carboxylations with Magnesium Methyl Carbonate (MMC)
VI. Alkylation of j3-Ketoesters
VII. The Robinson Annelation Reaction

11 . The Wittig Reaction
I. Benzyl-Containing Ylides
II. Alkyl Ylides Requiring «-Butyl Lithium
III. Methylsulfinyl Carbanion in the Generation of Ylides
IV. The Wittig Reaction Catalyzed by Ethylene Oxide
V. Cyclopropylidene Derivatives via the Wittig Reaction

12. Reactions of Trialkylboranes
I. Trialkylcarbinols from Trialkylboranes and Carbon Monoxide
II. Dialkylketones from Trialkylboranes and Carbon Monoxide- Water
III. The Reaction of Trialkylboranes with Methyl Vinyl Ketone and Acrolein
IV. The Reaction of Trialkylboranes with Ethyl Bromoacetate

13. Carbenes as Intermediates
I. Carbene Addition by the Zinc-Copper Couple
II. Dibromocarbenes
III. Dihalocarbenes from Phenyl(trihalomethyl)mercury Compounds

14. Ethynylation
I. Generation of Sodium Acetylide in Liquid Ammonia
II. The Generation of Sodium Acetylide in Tetrahydrofuran
III. The Generation of Sodium Acetylide via Dimsylsodium

15. Structural Isomerizations
I. Acid Catalyzed Rearrangement of Saturated Hydrocarbons
II. Photolytic Ring Contraction
III. Isomerization of 1-Ethynylcylohexanol: Three Methods
IV. Photolytic Isomerization of 1,5-Cyclooctadiene
V. Oxidative Rearrangement of /3-Diketones
VI. Base Catalyzed Rearrangement of 4-Benzoyloxycyclohexanone
VII. Allenes from 1,1-Dihalocyclopropanes by Methyllithium

16. Elimination, Substitution, and Addition Reactions Resulting in Carbon-Carbon Bond Formation
I. Carboxylation of Carbonium Ions
II. Paracyclophane via a 1,6-Hofmann Elimination
III. Diphenylcyclopropenone from Commercial Dibenzyl Ketone
IV. Phenylcyclopropane from Cinnamaldehyde
V. Conversion of Alkyl Chlorides to Nitriles in DMSO
VI. Photolytic Addition of Formamide to Olefins
VII. Intermolecular Dehydrohalogenation
VIII. Ring Enlargement with Diazomethane
IX. Conjugate Addition of Grignard Reagents
X. Dimethyloxosulfonium Methylide in Methylene Insertions
Xl. Acylation of a Cycloalkane: Remote Functionalization
XII. The Modified Hunsdiecker Reaction

17. Miscellaneous Preparations
I. Derivatives of Adamantane
II. Percarboxylic Acids
III. Diazomethane
IV. Trichloroisocyanuric Acid

Appendix 1. Examples of Multistep Syntheses
Appendix 2. Sources of Organic Reagents
Appendix 3. Introduction to the Techniques of Synthesis

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Process Dynamics and Control, Modeling for Control and Prediction: Brian Roffel, Ben Betlem

Process Dynamics and Control, Modeling for Control and Prediction
Brian Roffel, Ben Betlem

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1 Introduction to Process Modeling
1.1 Application of Process Models
1.2 Dynamic Systems Modeling
1.3 Modeling Steps
1.4 Use of Diagrams
1.5 Types of Models
1.6 Continuous versus Discrete Models
References
2 Process Modeling Fundamentals
2.1 System States
2.2 Mass Relationship for Liquid and Gas
2.3 Energy Relationship
2.4 Composition Relationship
3 Extended Analysis of Modeling for Process Operation
3.1 Environmental Model
3.2 Procedure for the Development of an Environmental Model for Process Operation
3.3 Example: Mixer
3.4 Example: Evaporator with Variable Heat Exchanging Surface
4 Design for Process Modeling and Behavioral Models
4.1 Behavioral Model
4.2 Example: Mixer
5 Transformation Techniques
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Laplace Transform
5.3 Useful Properties of Laplace Transform: limit functions
5.4 Transfer Functions
5.5 Discrete Approximations
5.6 z-Transforms
References
6 Linearization of Model Equations
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Non-linear Process Models
6.3 Some General Linearization Rules
6.4 Linearization of Model of the Level Process
6.5 Linearization of the Evaporator model
6.6 Normalization of the Transfer Function
6.7 Linearization of the Chemical Reactor Model
7 Operating Points
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Stationary System and Operating Point
7.3 Flow Systems
7.4 Chemical System
7.5 Stability in the Operating Point
7.6 Operating Point Transition
8 Process Simulation
8.1 Using Matlab Simulink
8.2 Simulation of the Level Process
8.3 Simulation of the Chemical Reactor
References
9 Frequency Response Analysis
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Bode Diagrams
9.3 Bode Diagram of Simulink Models
References
10 General Process Behavior
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Accumulation Processes
10.3 Lumped Process with Non-interacting Balances
10.4 Lumped Process with Interacting Balances
10.5 Processes with Parallel Balances
10.6 Distributed Processes
10.7 Processes with Propagation Without Feedback
10.8 Processes with Propagation With Feedback
11 Analysis of a Mixing Process
11.1 The Process
11.2 Mixer with Self-adjusting Height
12 Dynamics of Chemical Stirred Tank Reactors
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Isothermal First-order Reaction
12.3 Equilibrium Reactions
12.4 Consecutive Reactions
12.5 Non-isothermal Reactions
13 Dynamic Analysis of Tubular Reactors
13.1 Introduction
13.2 First-order Reaction
13.3 Equilibrium Reaction
13.4 Consecutive Reactions
13.5 Tubular Reactor with Dispersion
13.6 Dynamics of Adiabatic Tubular Flow Reactors
References
14 Dynamic Analysis of Heat Exchangers
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Heat Transfer from a Heating Coil
14.3 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger with Condensing Steam
14.4 Dynamics of a Counter-current Heat Exchanger
References
15 Dynamics of Evaporators and Separators
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Model Description
15.3 Linearization and Laplace Transformation
15.4 Derivation of the Normalized Transfer Function
15.5 Response Analysis
15.6 General Behavior
15.7 Example of Some Responses
15.8 Separation of Multi-phase Systems
15.9 Separator Model
15.10 Model Analysis
15.11 Derivation of the Transfer Function
16 Dynamic Modeling of Distillation Columns
16.1 Column Environmental Model
16.2 Assumptions and Simplifications
16.3 Column Behavioral Model
16.4 Component Balances and Equilibria
16.5 Energy Balances
16.6 Tray Hydraulics
16.7 Tray Pressure Drop
16.8 Column Dynamics
Notation
Greek Symbols
References
17 Dynamic Analysis of Fermentation Reactors
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Kinetic Equations
17.3 Reactor Models
17.4 Dynamics of the Fed-batch Reactor
17.5 Dynamics of Ideally Mixed Fermentation Reactor
17.6 Linearization of the Model for the Continuous Reactor
References
18 Physiological Modeling: Glucose-Insulin Dynamics and Cardiovascular Modeling
18.1 Introduction to Physiological Models
18.2 Modeling of Glucose and Insulin Levels
18.3 Steady-state Analysis
18.4 Dynamic Analysis
18.5 The Bergman Minimal Model
18.6 Introduction to Cardiovascular Modeling
18.7 Simple Model Using Aorta Compliance and Peripheral Resistance
18.8 Modeling Heart Rate Variability using a Baroreflex Model
References
19 Introduction to Black Box Modeling
19.1 Need for Different Model Types
19.2 Modeling steps
19.3 Data Preconditioning
19.4 Selection of Independent Model Variables
19.5 Model Order Selection
19.6 Model Linearity
19.7 Model Extrapolation
19.8 Model Evaluation
20 Basics of Linear Algebra
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Inner and Outer Product
20.3 Special Matrices and Vectors
20.4 Gauss–Jordan Elimination, Rank and Singularity
20.5 Determinant of a matrix
20.6 The Inverse of a Matrix
20.7 Inverse of a Singular Matrix
20.8 Generalized Least Squares
20.9 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors
References
21 Data Conditioning
21.1 Examining the Data
21.2 Detecting and Removing Bad Data
21.3 Filling in Missing Data
21.4 Scaling of Variables
21.5 Identification of Time Lags
21.6 Smoothing and Filtering a Signal
21.7 Initial Model Structure
References
22 Principal Component Analysis
22.1 Introduction
22.2 PCA Decomposition
22.3 Explained Variance
22.4 PCA Graphical User Interface
22.5 Case Study: Demographic data
22.6 Case Study: Reactor Data
22.7 Modeling Statistics
References
23 Partial Least Squares
23.1 Problem Definition
23.2 The PLS Algorithm
23.3 Dealing with Non-linearities
23.4 Dynamic Extensions of PLS
23.5 Modeling Examples
References
24 Time-series Identification
24.1 Mechanistic Non-linear Models
24.2 Empirical (linear) Dynamic Models
24.3 The Least Squares Method
24.4 Cross-correlation and Autocorrelation
24.5 The Prediction Error Method
24.6 Identification Examples
24.7 Design of Plant Experiments
References
25 Discrete Linear and Non-linear State Space Modeling
25.1 Introduction
25.2 State Space Model Identification
25.3 Examples of State Space Model Identification
References
26 Model Reduction
26.1 Model Reduction in the Frequency Domain
26.2 Transfer Functions in the Frequency Domain
26.3 Example of Basic Frequency-weighted Model Reduction
26.4 Balancing of Gramians
26.5 Examples of Model State Reduction Techniques
References
27 Neural Networks
27.1 The Structure of an Artificial Neural Network
27.2 The Training of Artificial Neural Networks
27.3 The Standard Back Propagation Algorithm
27.4 Recurrent Neural Networks
27.5 Neural Network Applications and Issues
27.6 Examples of Models
References
28 Fuzzy Modeling
28.1 Mamdani Fuzzy Models
28.2 Takagi-Sugeno Fuzzy Models
28.3 Modeling Methodology
28.4 Example of Fuzzy Modeling
28.5 Data Clustering
28.6 Non-linear Process Modeling
References
29 Neuro Fuzzy Modeling
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Network Architecture
29.3 Calculation of Model Parameters
29.4 Identification Examples
References
30 Hybrid Models
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Methodology
30.3 Approaches for Different Process Types
30.4 Bioreactor Case Study
Literature
31 Introduction to Process Control and Instrumentation
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Process Control Goals
31.3 The Measuring Device
31.4 The Control Device
31.5 The Controller
31.6 Simulating the Controlled Process
References
32 Behaviour of Controlled Processes
32.1 Purpose of Control
32.2 Controller Equations
32.3 Frequency Response Analysis of the Process
32.4 Frequency Response of Controllers
32.5 Controller Tuning Guidelines
References
33 Design of Control Schemes
33.1 Procedure
33.2 Example: Desulphurization Process
33.3 Optimal Control
33.4 Extension of the Control Scheme
33.5 Final Considerations
34 Control of Distillation Columns
34.1 Control Scheme for a Distillation Column
34.2 Material and Energy Balance Control
Summary
References
Appendix 34.I Impact of Vapor Flow Variations on Liquid Holdup
Appendix 34.II Ratio Control for Liquid and Vapor Flow in the Column
35 Control of a Fluid Catalytic Cracker
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Initial Input–output Variable Selection
35.3 Extension of the Basic Control Scheme
35.4 Selection of the Final Control Scheme
References

Appendix A. Modeling an Extraction Process
A1: Problem Analysis
A2: Dynamic Process Model Development
A3: Dynamic Process Model Analysis
A4: Dynamic Process Simulation
A5: Process Control Simulation Hints

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Instrumentacion Industrial: Antonio Creus Solé, 6ta Ed.

Instrumentacion Industrial: Antonio Creus Solé, 6ta Ed.

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Capítulo 1 Generalidades

1.1 Introducción
1.2 Definiciones en control
1.2.1 Campo de medida (range)
1.2.2 Alcance (span)
1.2.3 Error
1.2.4 Incertidumbre de la medida (uncertainty)
1.2.5 Exactitud
1.2.6 Precisión (accuracy)
1.2.7 Zona muerta (dead zone o dead band)
1.2.8 Sensibilidad (sensitivity)
1.2.9 Repetibilidad (repeatibility)
1.2.10 Histéresis (hysteresis)
1.2.11 Otros términos
1.3 Clases de instrumentos
1.3.1 En función del instrumento
1.3.2 En función de la variable de proceso
1.3.3 Código de identificación de instrumentos

Capitulo 2 Transmisores
2.1 Generalidades
2.2 Transmisores neumáticos
2.2.1 Bloque amplificador de dos etapas
2.2.2 Transmisor de equilibrio de movimientos
2.2.3 Transmisor de equilibrio de fuerzas
2.2.4 Transmisor de equilibrio de momentos
2.3 Transmisores electrónicos
2.3.1 Transmisores electrónicos de equilibrio de fuerzas
2.3.1.1 Detector de posición de inductancia
2.3.1.2 Transformador diferenciaL
2.3.2 Transmisores digitales
2.4 Comunicaciones
2.5 Comparación de transmisores

Capítulo 3 Medidas de presión
3.1 Unidades y clases de presión
3.2 Elementos mecánicos
3.3 Elementos neumáticos
3.4 Elementos electromecánicos
3.4.1 Transmisores electrónicos de equilibrio de fuerzas
3.4.2 Transductores resistivos
3.4.3 Transductores magnéticos
3.4.4 Transductores capacitivos
3.4.5 Galgas extensométricas (strain gage)
3.4.6 Transductores piezoeléctricos
3.5 Elementos electrónicos de vacío
3.5.1 Transductores mecániéos de fuelle y de diafragma
3.5.2 Medidor McLeod
3.5.3 Transductores térmicos
3.5.4 Transductores de ionización

Capítulo 4 Medidas de caudal
4.1 Medidores volumétricos
4.1.1 Instrumentos de presión diferencial
4.1.1.1 Fórmula general
4.1.1.2 Elementos de presión diferencial
4.1.1.3 Resumen de las normas ISO 5167-1980
4.1.1.4 Tubo Pitot
4.1.1.5 Tubo Annubar
4.1.1.6 Transmisores de fuelle y de diafragma
4.1.1.7 Integradores
4.1.2 Área variable (rotámetros)
4.1.3 Velocidad
4.1.3.1 Vertederos y Venturi
4.1.3.2 Turbinas
4.1.3.3 Transductores ultrasónicos
4.1.4 Fuerza (medidor de placa)
4.1.5 Tensión inducida (medidor magnético)
4.1.5.1 Medidor magnético de caudaL
4.1.6 Desplazamiento positivo
4.1.6.1 Medidor de disco oscilante
4.1.6.2 Medidor de pistón oscilante
4.1.6.3 Medidor de pistón alternativo
4.1.6.4 Medidor rotativo
4.1.6.5 Medidor de paredes deformables
4.1.6.6 Accesorios
4.1.7 Torbellino y Vórtex
4.1.8 Oscilante
4.2 Medidores de caudal masa
4.2.1 Compensación de variaciones de densidad del fluido en medidores volumétricos
4.2.2 Medición directa del caudal-masa
4.2.2.1 Medidores térmicos de caudal
4.2.2.2 Medidores de momento angular
4.2.2.3 Medidor de Coriolis
4.3 Comparación de características de los medidores de caudal

Capítulo 5 Medición de nivel
5.1 Medidores de nivel de líquidos
5.1.1 Instrumentos de medida directa
5.1.2 Instrumentos basados en la presión hidrostática. Medidor manométrico. Membrana. Burbujeo. Presión diferencial
5.1.3 Instrumento basado en el desplazamiento
5.1.4 Instrumentos basados en características eléctricas del líquido
5.2 Medidores de nivel de sólidos
5.2.1 Detectores de nivel de punto fijo
5.2.2 Detectores de nivel continuos

Capítulo 6 Medida de temperatura
6.1 Introducción
6.2 Termómetro de vidrio
6.3 Termómetro bimetálico
6.4 Termómetro de bulbo y capilar
6.5 Termómetros de resistencia
6.6 Termistores
6.7 Termopares
6.7.1 Leyes, curvas y tablas características, tubos de protección y su selección ..
6.7.2 Circuito galvanométrico
6.7.3 Circuito potenciométrico
6.7.4 Comparación entre circuitos galvanométricos y potenciométricos
6.7.5 Verificación de un instrumento y de un termopar
6.8 Pirómetros de radiación
6.8.1 Pirómetros ópticos
6.8.2 Pirómetro de infrarrojos
6.8.3 Pirómetro fotoeléctrico
6.8.4 Pirómetros de radiación total
6.9 Velocidad de respuesta de los instrumentos de temperatura
6.10 Tabla comparativa de características

Capítulo 7 Otras variables
7.1 Variables físicas
7.1.1 Peso
7.1.2 Velocidad
7.1.2.1 Tacómetros mecánicos
7.1.2.2 Tacómetros eléctricos
7.1.3 Densidad y pesQ específico
7.1.3.1 Introducción
7.1.3.2 Areómetros
7.1.3.3 Métodos de presión diferenciaL
7.1.3.4 Método de desplazamiento
7.1.3.5 Refractómetro
7.1.3.6 Método de radiación
7.1.3.7 Método de punto de ebullición
7.1.3.8 Medidor de ultrasonidos
7.1.3.9 Medidores inerciales
7.1.3.10 Medidor de Coriolis
7.1.3.11 Medidores de balanza
7.1.4 Humedad y punto de rocío
7.1.4.1 Humedad en aire y gases
7.1.4.2 Humedad en sólidos
7.1.4.3 Punto de rocío
7.1.5 Viscosidad y consistencia
7.1.5.1 Introducción
7.1.5.2 Viscosímetros
7.1.5.3 Medidores de consistencia
7.1.5.4 Tabla comparativa
7.1.6 Llama
7.1.6.1 Detector de calor
7.1.6.2 Detectores de ionización-rectificación
7.1.6.3 Detectores de radiación
7.1.6.4 Tabla comparativa de detectores
7.1.6.5 Programadores
7.1.7 Oxígeno disuelto
7.1.8 Turbidez
7.1.9 Intensidad de radiación solar
7.2 Variables químicas
7.2.1 Conductividad
7.2.2 pH
7.2.3 Redox (potencial de oxidación-reducción)
7.2.4 Concentración de gases
7.2.4.1 Conductividad térmica
7.2.4.2 Paramagnetismo del oxígeno
7.2.4.3 Analizador de infrarrojos

Capítulo 8 Elementos finales de controL
8.1 Válvulas de control
8.1.1 Generalidades
8.1.2 Tipos de válvulas
8.1.2.1 Válvula de globo
8.1.2.2 Válvula en ángulo
8.1.2.3 Válvula de tres vías
8.1.2.4 Válvula de jaula
8.1.2.5 Válvula de compuerta
8.1.2.6 Válvula en y
8.1.2.7 Válvula de cuerpo partido
8.1.2.8 Válvula Saunders
8.1.2.9 Válvula de compresión
8.1.2.10 Válvula de obturador excéntrico rotativo
8.1.2.11 Válvula de obturador cilíndrico excéntrico
8.1.2.12 Válvula de mariposa
8.1.2.13 Válvula de bola
8.1.2.14 Válvula de orificio ajustable
8.1.2.15 Válvula de flujo axiaL
8.1.3 Cuerpo de la válvula
8.1.4 Tapa de la válvula
8.1.5 Partes internas de la válvula. Obturador y asientos
8.1.5.1 Generalidades
8.1.5.2 Materiales
8.1.5.3 Características de caudal inherente
8.1.5.4 Características de caudal efectivas
8.1.5.5 Selección de la característica de la válvula
8.1.6 Corrosión y erosión en las válvulas. Materiales
8.1.7 Servomotores
8.1.7.1 Servomotor neumático
8.1.7.2 Servomotor eléctrico
8.1.7.3 Tipos de acciones en las válvulas de control
8.1.8 Accesorios
8.1.8.1 Camisa de calefacción
8.1.8.2 Posicionador
8.1.8.3 Volante de accionamiento manual
8.1.8.4 Repetidor
8.1.8.5 Transmisores de posición y microrruptores de final de carrera
8.1.8.6 Válvula de solenoide de tres vías
8.1.8.7 Válvula de enclavamiento
8.1.8.8 Válvula de Kv o Cvo carrera ajustables
8.1.9 Dimensionamiento de la válvula. Coeficientes Kv YCv
8.1.9.1 Definiciones
8.1.9.2 Fórmula general
8.1.9.3 Líquidos
8.1.9.4 Gases
8.1.9.5 Vapores
8.1.9.6 Régimen bifásico
8.1.9.7 Resumen de cálculo de coeficientes de válvulas
8.1.10 Ruido en las válvulas de controL
8.1.10.1 Generalidades
8.1.10.2 Causas del ruido en las válvulas
8.1.10.3 Reducción del ruido
8.2 Elementos finales electrónicos
8.2.1 Amplificador magnético saturable
8.2.2 Rectificadores controlados de silicio
8.2.3 Válvula inteligente
8.3 Otros elementos finales de control

Capítulo 9 Regulación automática
9.1 Introducción
9.2 Características del proceso
9.3 Sistemas de control neumáticos y eléctricos
9.3.1 Control todo-nada
9.3.2 Control flotante
9.3.3 Control proporcional de tiempo variable
9.3.4 Control proporcional.
9.3.5 Control proporcional + integraL
9.3.6 Control Ploporcional + derivado
9.3.7 Control proporcional + integral + derivado
9.3.8 Cambio automático-manual-automático
9.3.9 Tendencias en los instrumentos neumáticos
9.4 Sistemas de control electrónicos y digitales
9.4.1 Generalidades
9.4.2 Control todo-nada
9.4.3 Control proporcional de tiempo variable
9.4.4 Control proporcional
9.4.5 Control integral
9.4.6 Control derivativo
9.4.7 Control proporcional + integral + derivativo
9.4.8 Cambio automático-manual-automático
9.4.9 Controladores digitales
9.5 Selección del sistema de control
9.6 Criterios de estabilidad en el control
9.7 Métodos de ajuste de controladores
9.8 Otros tipos de control
9.8.1 Generalidades
9.8.2 Control en cascada
9.8.3 Programadores
9.8.4 Control de relación
9.8.5 Control anticipativo
9.8.6 Control de gama partida
9.8.7 Control selectivo
9.8.8 Control de procesos discontinuos
9.8.9 Controladores no lineales
9.8.10 Instrumentos auxiliares
9.9 Seguridad intrínseca
9.9.1 Introducción
9.9.2 Nivel de energía de seguridad
9.9.3 Mecanismos de la ignición en circuitos de baja tensión
9.9.4 Clasificaciones de áreas peligrosas
9.9.5 Normas
9.9.6 Barreras Zener
9.9.7 Barreras galvánicas
9.9.8 Factores de seguridad
9.10 Control por computador
9.10.1 Generalidades
9.10.2 Control DDC
9.10.3 Control supervisor
9.10.4 Control distribuido
9.10.5 Sistemas de control avanzado
9.10.6 Sistemas expertos
9.10.7 Control por redes neuronales
9.10.8 Control por lógica difusa (fuzzy)
9.11 Evolución de la instrumentación

Capítulo 10 Calibración de los instrumentos
10.1 Introducción
10.2 Errores de los instrumentos. Procedimiento general de calibración
10.3 Calibración de instrumentos de presión, nivel y caudaL
10.4 Calibración de instrumentos de temperatura
10.5 Comprobación de válvulas de control
10.6 Aparatos electrónicos de comprobación
10.7 Calidad de calibración según Norma ISO 9002

Capítulo 11: Aplicaciones en la industria. Esquemas típicos de control
11.1 Generalidades
11.2 Calderas de vapor
11.2.1 Control de combustión
11.2.2 Control de nivel
11.2.3 Seguridad de llama
11.3 Secaderos y evaporadores
11.4 Horno túnel
11.5 Columnas de destilación
11.6 Intercambiadores de calor
11.7 Control del reactor en una central nuclear

Apéndice. Análisis dinámico de los instrumentos
A.l Generalidades
A.2 Análisis dinámico de los transmisores
A.2.1 Elementos fundamentales
A.2.2 Diagrama de bloques, diagrama de Bode y función de transferencia de un transmisor
A.2.2.1 Transmisor neumático
A.2.2.2 Transmisor electrónico
A.2.2.3 Transmisor digital
A.2.3 Velocidad de respuesta de los transmisores
A.2.3.1 Transmisores neumáticos
A.2.3.2 Transmisores electrónicos o digitales
A.3 Análisis dinámico de los controladores
A.3.1 Introducción
A.3.2 Acción proporcional
A.3.3 Acción proporcional + integral
A.3.4 Acción proporcional + derivada
A.3.5 Acción proporcional + integral + derivada
A.3.6 Ensayo de controladores
A.4 Iniciación a la optimización de procesos
A.4.l Generalidades
A.4.2 Análisis experimental del proceso
A.4.3 Estabilidad
A.5 Control avanzado
A.5.1 Correctores
A.5.2 Control multivariable
A.5.3 Control óptimo
A.5.4 Control adaptativo
A.5.5 Control predictivo
A.5.6 Control por redes neuronales
A.5.7 Control por lógica difusa
A.5.8 Estructuras del control avanzado

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